In past, the relationship between traditional learning theories and neurophysiological theories wasn't a close relationship. Recently, new findings in neurological sciences showed relatively simple neuron mechanisms for somewhat complicated learning events, for example Observational learning, one of which is mirror neurons. These neurons show that how the brain registers the activity observed and facilitates doing it at the present time or in the future. The role of these neurons in social interactions is matching the action observed with the action performed by the person, and, in this way, help the person observing others understand their behaviors through coordinating his (her) behaviors with behaviors of other people. About the origin of mirror neurons there are three perspectives: 1) evolutionary perspective assumes that existence of mirror neurons is part of human adaption which has evolved during the species life, 2) association perspective is basis on individual’s innate ability in shaping mirror neurons with emphasis on experience, and 3) ideation-action perspective supposes that image shaped from sensory feedback of an action is the base of it's true performance. Before discovering the mirror neurons, there were two explanations for imitative and Observational learning from cognitive and behavioral psychologists. Behaviorists by the leadership of B.F Skinner, the founder of operant conditioning theory, believed that observing model, performing behavior based on model's behavior, and obtaining reinforcement are three elements of Observational learning. In contrast, cognitionists, with the leadership of Albert Bandura, believed that Observational learning is mainly a cognitive and informational processing event and assumed that four steps for it: attention, retention, movement reproduction and motivation. The discovery of mirror neurons supports neither behavioral perspective nor cognitive view points.

In this experiment, the fingerlings of grass carp reared under natural feeding of the pond were allowed to observe carp attacks on fully floating (pieces of bread) and sinking food (laboratory –made pellet). The performance and feeding starting times were then compared among carp-exposed or carp-observer grass carp that could see the food directly with the demonstrators’ foraging activity and naïve grass carp groups that couldn't see the demonstrators’ (common carp) feeding activity. The carp-exposed and carp-observer groups of grass carp were better at feeding reaction (start time) than naïve fish when they fed on two novel fully floating and sinking food. When they fed on floating bread, 80% of the chambers of grass carp with carp in compare with 53% of the chambers with only naïve grass showed starting taking food for the duration of 5 days. When they fed on sinking pellets, 65% of the carp - observer grass carp in the tanks compared with 20% of the chambers with the naïve grass carps, showed taking the diet for the duration of 5 days. More carp-exposed grass carp learned taking novel floating diet during 10 days experimental period and the observer grass carp in the experimental tanks with sinking novel diet showed catching pellets 48 hour before the naïve grass carp groups. The fingerlings of carp-exposed and carp-observing grass carp were capable of direct Observational learning in their feeding behavior.

The purpose of this study was to address the effect of task constraint on learning of movement pattern and parameter during Observational learning. For this purpose 16 participants, all right-handed, were randomly divided into ball and no-ball groups. Both groups observed a point-light display of full body demonstration while one group had to throw a ball like the model (with task constraint) and the other had no information about the external goal of the task (without task constraint). Both groups performed 20 trials as acquisition, and one day later they completed 5 trials as retention. Movement kinematics were recorded to be compared with the model. Variability of intra-limb coordination and the peak wrist velocity difference in reference to the model were calculated. The results showed that in movement coordination the no-ball group performed more comparable to the model than ball group, but, in peak wrist velocity, the ball group was more comparable to the model. These results were observed both in acquisition and retention. A possible reason for these results could be the ball group’s ignoring of the movement pattern in order to achieve the external movement goal.

The aim of present study was to determine the relationship between sport imagery ability and Observational learning functions among male athletes.115 male athletes, who participated in 12st varsity sport tournament with mean age of 22.89±3.94 age years, completed the research questionnaires. Results showed that there were significant positive correlations between sport imagery ability and functions of Observational learning subscales. Results of stepwise hierarchical multiple regression analysis showed that the skill and goal imagery ability significantly predicted the skill function of Observational learning, and the strategy imagery ability significantly predicted the strategies of Observational learning function. Also, the performance function of Observational learning significantly was predicted by goal and mastery imagery abilities. Based on these findings, could be suggested that coaches and sport psychologists can improve the effectiveness of imagery and Observational learning by matching the imagery ability types and alternatives Observational learning functions in relatively high skilled athletes.

Introduction: Professional sport not only requires physical preparation, technical and tactical factors, but also cognitive, psychological and emotional characteristics can affect performance. Objective: Hence, the objective of this study was to compare executive functions of attention, Observational learning functions and working memory in professional athletes and ordinary people. Method: This is causal-comparative research. 90 people over 15 years old (45 professional athletes and 45 ordinary people) were included in this study during 2021-2022. For data collection, color-word Stroop test (… & … 2006), Functions of Observational learning Questionnaire (FOLQ) (Cumming et al., 2005) and Working Memory Rating Scale (WMRS) were used. Data was analyzed using descriptive statistics and independent t-test. Results: The results of the t-test showed a significant difference between the variables of attention, Observational learning functions and working memory between two groups of professional athletes and ordinary people (P<0.05). Accordingly, in all the variables of attention ability, Observational learning functions including (skill, strategy and execution) and working memory, the mean score of the professional athletes group was higher than ordinary people (P<0.05). Conclusion: The study results showed the necessity of paying attention to executive functions of working memory, Observational learning and sports activities; and many practical implications in the field of interventions for those who decide to exercise professionally.