Introduction: For many years, it has been emphasized on the role of attentional bias in addiction-related disorders, including its role in craving and relapse. This reseasrch aimed to investigate, the effectiveness of attentional bias modification on attention bias, pre-attentional bias and craving in abstinent addicts. Methods: Three groups (control, attentional bias modification and attentional bias modification with reinforcement and punishment) in three phases (pre-test, post-test, and follow up) assessed in attentional bias, pre-attentional bias, and craving. During the pretest and post-test, the control group received placebo training, while the second group received attentional bias modification training, and the third group received attentional bias modification training with reinforcement and punishment, respectively. To measure attentional bias, pre-attentional bias, and interventions, and to measure craving Dotprobe task test and Brief Substance Craving Scale were used respectively. Results: The results indicated that there was a significant difference between three groups in attentional bias in post-test and follow-up, the pre-attentional bias in post-test, and craving in the post-test. The control group obtained a higher score in pre-attentional bias than two experimental groups in the pre-attentional bias in follow up and attentional bias modification with reinforcement and punishment group obtained a lower score in craving than two other groups in craving in follow up. Conclusion: It seems that adding reinforcement and punishment to the classical intervention of attentional bias modification can lead to improving the effectiveness of this intervention. Besides, interventions based on attention bias modification are efficient interventions.

Knowledge of auditors' professions and choices is influenced by perception, judgment, and decision-making processes and can affect audit errors. The purpose of this study is to investigate the effect of status quo bias, loss aversion bias, representative bias, and cognitive dissonance bias on auditors’ errors, which is descriptive and analytical in terms of practical purpose and method. The statistical population of the present study includes the auditors of the Iranian Auditing Association. Researcher-made questionnaires with validity and reliability were distributed among 90 statistical samples during 2020 and the data analyzed using Smart PLS software. Findings indicate that status quo, loss aversion, representative and cognitive dissonance biases have a significant effect on auditors’ errors. Therefore, auditors do not tend to deviate from past decisions by acknowledging the status quo, and this increases auditors' errors by reducing flexibility. Also, imbalance in the orientation towards loss-avoidance bias reduces auditors' responsibilities and increases risk, and this is accompanied by an increase in auditors' errors. In addition, the classification of issues and considerations according to the auditor's relevant and comparable past experiences has led to representational bias, in which case auditors face an increase in auditors' errors. At the same time, cognitive dissonance cause auditors to continue to make wrong decisions, only with the aim of justifying their previous decision, and hence the auditors' errors increase. The results showed that the most effective biases affecting the auditors' errors include cognitive dissonance bias (39%), loss aversion bias (36%), representative bias (27%) and status quo bias (8%).

Background & aim: Inability to control drug use is one of the main aspects of drug dependence. Part of this disability is due to the cognitive biases that result from people's constant exposure to substances. The aim of this study was to determine and compare the effectiveness of cognitive bias correction in real and placebo modes. Methods: The present research was a quasi-experimental study with pretest and posttest design and control group. of Kerman's opiate users in 2018, 75 individuals were selected by purposive sampling and were randomly divided into three equal groups(experimental, placebo, and control). Computer tasks were used to correct cognitive bias in both experimental and placebo groups. These tasks included: dot probe task (to correct attentional bias) and avoidance task(to correct tendency bias) that were used in each treatment session in combination. In the real group for 8 sessions, the real version of the cognitive bias correction task was presented and the placebo group received the placebo version for 8 sessions, but the control group received no intervention. Data were analyzed using multivariate analysis of covariance. Results: The results revealed that after intervention, attention bias in the real group(M=28. 28 SD=38. 57) compared to the placebo group(M=0. 16 SD=34. 36) and the control group decreased significantly. A significant decrease was also observed in (SD=33. 73 M=16. 03) and attentional bias correction treatment decreased attentional bias (p≥ 0. 05), but placebo of this intervention had no effect on attentional bias. There was also a meaningful difference in tendency bias between the real and placebo groups (p≥ 0. 05). Conclusion: The results of the present study indicated the effectiveness of cognitive bias correction intervention on attentional bias and tendency bias in opiate abusers and may be used as a complementary and low cost intervention in addiction treatment.

Problems in cognitive processes were reported in infertile persons. The present study has focused on biases as a type of cognitive vulnerability in these persons. The aim was at first, to determine whether there is memory, attention and problem-solving baises in these persons, and then which type of processing there are involved? One hundred ten subjects participated in the study including 55 infertile (30 females and 25 males), and 55 fertile (30 females and 25 males). In memory, subjects were asked to listen to a list of words including 12 infertility related words, 12 neutral words and 12 animal names. They were given free recall test to remember as many words as possible and then they were asked to recognize target words among 36 distractor words. In attention, the subjects were required to name the color of 34 words (17 infertility related and 17 neutral) as fast as possible. The subjects reaction time was recorded by computer. In problem solving, the subjects were required to complete 10 words (5 infertility related and 5 neutral) which were fragmented by some letters. Repeated messure analysis variance was used, in memory, the design was 2 groups (fertile, infertile) ×2 sex (male, female) ×3 type of word (infertility related, neutral and animal name) and in attention the design was 2 group (fertile and infertile) ×2 sex (male, female) ×2 type of word (infertility related and neutral), in problem solving independent T test was used for comparison between fertile and infertile women. The results of memory tests showed that infertile women as compared to fertile men recalled and recognized more infertility related words than other type of words. In attention test, there was no significant difference in reaction time between infertile and fertile groups in infertility related words and neutral words. In problem solving test in neutral words, infertile women as compared with fertile men, completed fewer words significantly, but in infertility related words there was no significant difference between them. Since, memory and problem solving the processes are deep and strategic and in attention are automatic, the results of memory and problem solving, showed that infertile women process the infertility related stimulus in controlled, strategic, and deep manner, and on the basis of attention results, they do not show the automatic and uncontrolled processing. Thus in treatment of psychological consequence of infertility, cognitive methods is the best method, because they focus directly on conscious thought.

Introduction: Many of the students' educational problems, including academic failure and maladaptive behaviors, stem from exam anxiety caused by students' cognitive bias. Cognitive bias modification can reduce attention biases of students to negative issues. Therefore, the purpose of the present study was to investigate the effectiveness of cognitive bias modification intervention on reducing attention bias in students with test anxiety. Methods: This research was an experimental study with pre and post-tests and a control group design. Statistical population of the study included all high school female students with test anxiety in district 3 of Tehran city in 2018-2019 academic years. Research sample included 32 female students with test anxiety that were selected by cluster sampling and classified into two groups: experimental group (n=16 subjects) and control group (n=16 subjects). The research instrument used in this study was the Sarason Anxiety Questionnaire (1980) with a reliability of 0. 88 and dot probe task (2017) Which has good validity and reliability for hated face that is 0. 94 and for neutral face is 0. 95. The results were analyzed using univariate analysis of covariance in SPSS version 22. Results: The results of Analysis of Covariance (ANCOVA) showed that cognitive bias modification were effective in attention bias of students with test anxiety (P < 0. 05). Conclusions: According to the results, it can be said that using this intervention can reduce the attention bias of the students with test anxiety, and thus increase the mental health and concentration of the students with test anxiety.

Cognitive theories of emotional disorders posit that data processing biases playa crucial role in the maintenance and possibly the development of mood and anxiety disorders. Researchers have identified four cognitive biases in anxious individuals: attention, memory, judgment, and interpretation biases. Examination of data processing biases in social phobic individuals has demonstrated that they also show these four cognitive biases. We examined the hypothesis that compared to non-patient controls (NPC) and individual with other anxiety disorders (OAD), individuals with generalized social phobia (GSP) would tend to interpret ambiguous social scenarios negatively when provided with various alternative interpretations.Participants were presented with 22 ambiguous scenarios each followed by three possible interpretations: positive, negative and neutral. Fifteen scenarios were based on social events and the rest were non-social ones. Participants were asked to rank order the three interpretations according to the like hood that each would come to their mind and also to a "typical person's" mind in similar situations. So, the results revealed that GSPs significantly (P<0.01) tended to choose negative interpretation of social, self-relevant and social self-relevant events more than two control groups. The results of the present study support this hypothesis than a specific negative interpretation bias may be involved in the maintenance of social phobia.

Attentional bias modification therapy is an emerging therapy for anxiety disorders. it seems that this method of treatment can also reduce the desire to use drugs and cognitive bias in addicts. The aim of the present study is to determine The effectiveness of Attentional Bias Modification Therapy with combining operant conditioning on the reduction of attentional bias in Addicts treated with methadon .. The method of this research was a semi-experimental type with a pre-test, post-test design of three groups with follow-up. Based on the desired criteria, 60 men were randomly selected and assigned to three groups (control, modification of attention bias, modification of attention bias with reinforcement and punishment). Two experimental groups received the interventions and the control group did not receive the intervention. To measure attention bias and interventions, the dot-probe test (McLeod et al., 1986) was used at two stimulus presentation times (600 milliseconds and 200 milliseconds(. The findings showed that there is a significant difference between all three groups in the post-test and follow-up of attention bias and pre-attention bias. In addition, the comparison between the attention bias modification and the attention bias modification group with reinforcement and punishment showed that the attention bias modification group with reinforcement and punishment had less attention bias in the post-test and follow-up. The result is that attention bias modification treatment is an effective intervention, and the use of bias modification treatment with reinforcement and punishment is a more efficient intervention to reduce the bias of addicts treated with methadone

This study examined the effect of attentional bias modification related to food’s stimuli in obese women. The present study used Pretest–Posttest Design with experimental and control groups. To this end, 35 obese women, matched in two separate groups based on weight, age and education level, participated in the study. First, amount of attentional bias toward food words evaluated using probe dot task. Then, attentional bias in one group modified with probe dot task and other group received aplacebo. Again, the amount of attentional bias towards food stimuli in groups was assessed to determine the effectiveness of attentional bias modification task.Results: The experimental group who received attentional bias modification task, comparing with control group, showed, significantly, less attentional bias towards food cues.Conclusion: Attentional bias modification task in obese women were able to reduce the amount of attentional bias towards food cues. Thus, cognitive therapy, beside the other treatment, could help obese woman to be treated.

Attributional biases associated with negative events in hallucination and delusion is core socio-cognitive explanation of positive symptomology of pychosis. Based on the continuity view of psychotic characteristics, schizotypal traits and schizophrenia psychosis are conceptualized as different points on a continuum, expressing different degrees of risk according to the assumptions of the vulnerability-stress-model. The main purpose of the present study was to assess the attributional biases in schizotypal personality. A group of 477 normal participants from colleges of the Allameh Tabatabaie University (Tehran, Iran) were screened with Schizotypal Personality Scale (ST A). Then a group of 30 participants as schizotypal personality sample together with the other 30 participants as control group were selected and assessed with the Attributional Style Questionnaire (ASQ). The results showed that in comparison with the control group, the attributions of the group with schizotypal trait are more external, global and stable for negative events while they are more internal, global and stable for positive events. This finding is in line of other findings with clinical group of schizophrenic patients. The findings of this research support Bentall et al’s view on psychosis explanation from a social cognitive perspective and also provide more research-based confirmations for the dimensional model of psychosts.

One of the barriers to people's health is following past behaviors and not changing habits based on past and current preferences and ignoring the future. Therefore, the main purpose of the present study is to investigate factor analysis of health biases related to people using behavioral economics approach. For this purpose, the data of the present study was collected through a questionnaire developed by the researcher and convenience sampling from faculty members and staff of Ilam University. The initial reliability of the questions related to health biases was measured based on the Cronbach's alpha criterion, and the result was 0.77. The results of exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis showed that eight dimensions of health biases are important reflections of people's biased beliefs during daily decisions regarding nutrition, physical activity, treatment, treatment cost and treatment period. Exploratory factor analysis showed that 8 factors explain about 72.55% of the changes in health biases. Also, the examination of the fit indices of the confirmatory factor analysis model showed that the eight-factor model has a good fit with the data. . People's health biases in the form of 8 main dimensions were named as follows:  impatience in nutrition, oversimplification in nutrition, presentism in physical activity, ignoring the cost of staying healthy, willingness to pay for immediate treatment, procrastination in emotional treatment, naivety about the treatment period and indiscretion in treatment. The results of the present study can help health activists (researchers, decision-makers, planners, etc.) to explain the biases of behavioral economics to informing new concepts of health