Introduction The dependents of verb are among the most debated subjects on which a considerable body of research has been done. Yet, researchers have constantly had diverse opinions about their real identities. Complement, as one of the dependents of verb, is in the same boat. Some scholars have differentiated obligatory complements from optional ones, while others consider complements as obligatory elements and do not recognize an optional category. This article, based on Langacker’ s (1987, 2013) Cognitive Grammar and through a corpus-based method, seeks to find out whether the Persian corpus verifies the existence of optional complements and if not, in what category can we place what is normally called optional complement. In other words, this research is to seek the answers to the following questions: Are there any optional complements besides obligatory ones based on Persian corpus-based data as well as Langacker’ s Cognitive Grammar? If complements are merely obligatory, how can one categorize those elements called optional complements? Methodology To answer the above-mentioned questions, four dependents (subject, object, source and goal) of four salient motion verbs (raftan 'go', ā madan 'come', ā vardan 'bring' and bordan 'take') in Persian were chosen to be studied. To this end, 300 tokens of each salient motion verb along with their dependents and the related linguistic context were randomly selected from the corpus of Hamshahri 2 to observe their corporal behavior. Discussion Langacker (1987, 2013) distinguishes 3 dependents for heads including verbs, which are “ complements” , “ modifiers” and “ adjuncts” . He defines complements as “ a component structure that elaborates a salient substructure of the head. The head is thus dependent, and the complement is autonomous” (Langacker, 2013: 203). Conversely a modifier is “ a component structure that contains a salient substructure elaborated by the head. In this case the head is autonomous, and the modifier is dependent” (Langacker, 2013: 203). And finally “ a component structure which fails to either elaborate the head or be elaborated by it is called an adjunct” (Langacker, 2013: 205). Regarding the four dependents of the salient motion verbs under study, subjects and objects are complements since they elaborate the salient substructures of the verbs. Subjects elaborate the schematic trajectors of the verbs and objects elaborate the schematic landmarks of them. So the verb is, to a great extent, dependent on the subject and the object to complete its meaning. Such high conceptual dependence of the verb brings about its syntactic dependence too and as a result complements are obligatory and must constantly accompany the verb. The corporal behavior of the complements (subjects and objects) verifies this fact; from 300 tokens of each verb in Persian, there was not even a single sample in which the subject or the object was absent. Goals and sources, which tend to be considered as optional complements in the canonical viewpoints in Persian grammar, are, taking Langacker’ s Cognitive Grammar into consideration, modifiers since the motion verb elaborates their schematic trajectors which is a schematic process denoting a motional action. As a result, they are conceptually dependent on the motion verbs, hence being modifiers. 3. Conclusion The corporal behavior of subjects, objects, goals and sources as the dependents of the four salient motion verbs under study produces the following conclusions: 1. Complements are solely obligatory elements since they elaborate the schematic trajectors or landmarks of motion verbs; thus, motion verbs are so conceptually dependent on the complements that they can never appear without them and as a result they become syntactically dependent on the complements as well. Sources and goals, on the other hand, are modifiers that are dependent on motion verbs to elaborate their schematic trajectors. Therefore, the relation that exists between the complement and the verb does exist between the modifier and the verb too but in a reverse direction. 2. Although sources and goals are both modifiers considering Langacker’ s Cognitive Grammar, the result of the study shows that there is a goal over source preference. The frequency of the goals is much higher than that of the sources and the result of the Chi-square test indicates that there is a significant difference between the presence of these two elements with salient motion verbs (P<0. 05). This result aligns with Stefanowitsch and Rohde (2004), Kabata (2013) and Verkerk (2014). 3. Although there is an asymmetrical distribution between sources and goals, neither of them are optional elements. Their behavior in the text corpus shows that the presence of these modifiers are determined by the context, i. e. if the context needs them, they have to appear and if not, they are not employed by it. For that reason, sources and goals are contextually obligatory and can be called “ contextual supplements” . Studying adjuncts in the corpus shows that they are not optional either. These elements, too, have to be present if the context necessitates their being but if they are not summoned by the context, they are absent. So, adjuncts on the par with the modifiers are contextually obligatory and termed “ contextual supplements” in this study. Based on the results of the analysis of the Persian text corpus, it seems that Langacker’ s triple division of the dependents (i. e. complements, modifiers and adjuncts) does not meet the corporal behavior of these dependents.

The classification of words for organization and easy access to their various dimensions, as well as the aggregation of information, is one of the topics that has long been the focus of attention of researchers in the field of conceptoloy and terminology. This research has two objectives. First, to classify a selection of content words in Moein Dictionary based on the approaches of Felber (1984) and Langacker (2008, 2013), in order to examine the capability and efficiency of approaches in classifying the general words of dictionary, as well as the possibility of combining the approaches and achieving a more comprehensive paradigm. Second, to identify and categorize the underlying concepts of the entries extracted from dictionary via conceptology, and compare the advantages and disadvantages with the classifications of Felber and Langacker. The data includes 990 content words extracted from the Moein dictionary, by the random sampling method. The results of the study show that Felber and Langacker’ s classifications and the combination do not possess the essential efficiency to classify all words in the dictionary. Thus, the solution found in the conceptology of lexical entries, as a result of which 45 concepts were identified and presented as a unified model.

The main purpose of this paper is the investigation of Persian modal auxiliary verbs in the framework of force-dynamic model of Talmy and idealized cognitive model of Langacker. Force-dynamic model which stands, originally, for the analysis of action and reaction of physical objects in the real world, has been used by Talmy for characterizing the deontic notion of modal auxiliaries and then, extended by Sweetser for conceptualizing the epistemic reading of modals. The investigation of deontic and epistemic notions of modal auxiliaries on the basis of this model, revealed that the actualization of the event is not guaranteed but it is actualized in the nonfactual world. The second model, i.e., the metaphoric idealized cognitive model, known as epistemic model, is proposed by Langacker under the influence of Lakoff's theory of idealized cognitive models. The investigation of modal auxiliaries in the framework of this model showed that modal auxiliaries are not under epistemic control and fall in the realm of irreality and with respect to the rate of momentum construed to the specified event, the modals locate in a near of far distance from immediate reality. By comparing the results of the two models, it is revealed that not being under epistemic control equals not being guaranteed and on the other hand, actualizing the situation in nonfactual world means falling in the scope of irreality; so, the two models cooperate in conceptualizing the Persian modal auxiliary verbs.

Cognitive linguistics believes that language directly reflects the speaker 's conceptualization of situations. As one of the theorists of cognitive linguistics, Langacker states that based on three principles, importance, accuracy and perspective, different interpretations of the speaker can be processed. There are many such interpretations in the Holy Quran. In fact, the various interpretations used in the verses of the Qur'an play a very important role cognitively and have a special meaning. One of those interpretations is the interpretation of "La’, l + verb". In fact, this interpretation tells us which of the linguistic elements of those verses is of special importance. Therefore, this article intends to examine the verses that contain this interpretation with the help of this theory and based on the descriptive-analytical method. The results of this study showed that the verbs in the interpretation of " La’, l + verb" were more important to God than other elements and were highlighted among other linguistic elements to attract the reader's attention.

This paper is aimed at describing compound nouns and word formation in Persian from the standpoint of Cognitive Grammar (Langacker, 1991) and Construction Morphology (Booij, 2010). To this end, authors deny the existence of word formation rules as concatenation of morphemes and describe compound nouns from Langacker’ s usage-based model (Langacker, 2000), which includes word formation templates and hierarchical lexicon. Our aim in this study is to present arguments in favor of construction morphology approach to word formation in Persian. Based on this analysis, compounds including exocentric and endocentric compounds are dominated by the following schemas in Persian lexicon. The schema in (1) is the schema for endocentric compounds like 'č eš m pezeš k' (oculist). Exocentric compounds like naxon xoš k (scrooge), are not compositional so they are represented as specific constructions with a fixed meaning as (2). The schemas in (1) and (2) pair a form with a specific meaning in the form of a morphological construction. . . .

This paper attempts to investigate the progressive aspect in Bala-Geriveh Lori /lø ri/ based on Cognitive Grammar Approach (Langacker, 1982). In this dialect, the auxiliary hɑ , derived from hɑ se ‘ to want’ , is used for making present progressive while past progressive is made by the morpheme he. Hence, this paper investigates why the use of the verb hɑ se as an auxiliary is limited. For doing this research, 820 sentences were collected from villages around Khorramabad. Then the data was analysed using a descriptive-analytical method based on Cognitive Grammar (Langacker, 1982). The data demonstrated that each morpheme has specific functions because hɑ assigns progression to the action, whereas he is used for the duration or repetition of an action. Meanwhile, both morphemes are used for making imperfective processes. Unacceptance of negation, acceptability of making present perfect progressive out of stative predicates, and simultaneous use of both morphemes in a sentence are among their important idiosyncratic features.

1. INTRODUCTION This study aims at the investigation of ellipsis in Persian coordinative constructions. Langacker (2012) speaks of ellipsis in cases where an expression that is not a clause itself, receives a clause-like interpretation by analogy to one that is. Most of the research on ellipsis in coordination regarding Persian have adopted a Generative Grammar approach. Generative linguists seemingly do not hold a unified opinion about ellipsis coordination or what they call right node raising. Shabani (2013) has mentioned that constituency or non-constituency of the omitted part is a subject of controversy among different generative linguists. On the one hand, linguists, such as Postal (1974), Bresnan (1974), Williams (1990), and Larson (1990) claim that right node raising only works on the elements forming a constituent. On the other hand other linguists, including Abbott (1976), Wilder (1995), Duman (2003), Kluck (2007), Wyngaerd (2007), Ince (2009), and Alzaidi (2010) argue that right node raising targets non-constituents as well as constituents, and this means that right node raising violates constituency condition. Having this in mind, it seems that the fixed and rigid constituency defined by Generative Grammar has caused some challenges for this kind of constructions description. Hence, adopting Cognitive Grammar approach, which is meaning-based instead of syntax-oriented and investigates language with all aspects of it, has rendered new and different results. Langacker (2009) argues that meaning includes not only conceptual content but also construal: our ability to conceive and portray the same situation in alternate ways. In order to have a uniform way of referring to (conceptual) content, the term domain (base) is adopted in cognitive grammar. One dimension of construal is the prominence conferred on conceptual elements, and one kind of prominence –,profiling-is of central importance in coordination. This is how meaning plays a significant role in our analyses. Langacker (2012) introduces differential and antidifferential as the coordinands of an elliptic coordinative construction. He defines differential and anti-differential in the framework of a model named as Access and Activation Model...

One of the concepts in cognitive linguistics approach is that each linguistic unit is a network of meanings. Langacker (1991: 16) believes that "morpheme, categories, and grammatical structures, all are a form of symbolic units". In this respect, affixes also have specific meanings which are added to bases and at last a derivation is created. An affix as a lexical entity forms a category whose meanings is collected around a core meaning. Therefore, we can say that derivations of 'pish-' prefix also have several meanings with an organized internal structure. In this article, to analyze this affix, its derivations are studied through a cognitive linguistic perspective, its different meanings are unraveled and finally by determining radial network of this affix, two meaning cluster were determined from which other meanings stemmed: temporal order and spatial order. One of these meanings, spatial meaning is selected as the core meaning and for doing it we used two factors proposed by Evans and Tyler (2003). Then spatial meaning of this polysemy affix was primary meaning around which other meanings are posited. To answer the question of whether there are many meanings for pish-affix and, if so, how these meanings are related to each other; it can be argued that from cognitive linguistic perspective and based on our data analysis, it was discovered that pish-affix is a linguistic expression that has a multidimentional feature. By reviewing 63 derivatives from affixation of this prefix to different grammatical categories, two meanings were obtained, each of which had different conceptual meanings. From these semantic clusters, the spatial sense was introduced as the initial meaning according to Evans and Tyler's (2003) criteria: the historical evidence and the incidence frequency in the scattered network, with other meanings surrounding this central meaning. It is necessary to explain that at first glance it seems that the meaning of "forward direction" is a separate meaning, but since motion occurs in the space, henceforth this concept is also in the section of priority of the place. In addition, in some cases, such as "pish-shomare (pre-code)" with The close conflict was the concept of space and time, in which case, given the fact that conceptual time is abstract and occurring in the concept of space, so it is not so easy to distinguish spatial and temporal priority in such derivatives.

Ellipsis constructions are formal patterns in which certain syntactic structure that is expressed to convey the intended content is omitted. The aim of this paper is to provide the basis for a cognitive construction grammar description of coordination ellipsis and gapping in Persian language. Therefore, the present research is based on the descriptive-analytical method, and since ellipsis is widely used in both written and spoken Persian, our corpus will include both types and it adopts cognitive and construction-based approach. The results show that Persian data can be analyzed, using the concept of access and activation introduced by Langacker (2012). Nonconstituent coordination is analyzed in the context of other sorts of clausal reduction, including the accentual reduction of unfocused elements as well as ellipsis, where overlapping content is left unexpressed. A pivotal desctiptive notion is the differential i. e. the content appearing in one clausal window that does not appear in the prior window. The results, also, show that the placement of the differential, when it intrrupts the baseline clause, is important. So, It can easily say that the differential directly follows the anti-differential.