In order to study the effect of plant densities on main stem and each one of TILLERS mortality in different growth stages of wheat, a field experiment was conducted at College of Agriculture, Shahid Chamran University during 1997-98cropping season. Experiment was carried out as factorial and based on RCB design with four replications. Factors were cultivars (Falat, Atrak, Vee/Nac and Maroon) and plant densities (200,300, 400, 500 and 600 plants/m2).Results indicated that, a fewmain stems were lost in different cultivars and plant densities, and did not produce spikes. In cultivars with high tillering potential, main stem mortality was higher. Main stem mortality in Falat, Atrak, Vee/Nac and Maroon cultivars were 15.41, 14.91, 7.91 and 5.74% ,respectively. Comparing various growth stages of tillering termination, booting, an thesis, milk development and ripening, main stem mortality was 0.0, 1.51, 3.96, 7.53 and 10.99% , respectively. By increasing the plant density, main stem mortality was also occurred earlier. Respecting to TILLERS, from 1st to the last TILLERS, the mortalitywas higher. For example, in 1st to 6th tiller, the mortality were 54.77,70.93,86.77,96.33,98.70and 100% , respectively. Also, mortality of each tiller occurred earlier.

In order to identify the relationship among the number of TILLERS per plant with grain yield and its components in spring bread wheat at different environmental conditions, 20 spring bread wheat genotypes were grown in 7 separate RCB designs each with 4 replications in 1995 and 1996 wheat growing season in Gachsaran Dryland Agricultural Research Station, located at South West of Iran. Each experiment was carried out in two different dates (normal and late) and two moisture regimes as irrigated and dry farming in each year. During growing period data were recorded for the number of TILLERS per plant, grain yield and its components. Genotypic and phenotypic variances, general heritability and genetic advance of tiller number per plant, and partial correlation of trait with grain yield and its components were calculated. The results showed a very low genotipic variance, heritability and genetic advance for trait. Only in normal planting data-mainly in irrigated condition there were some weak and positive correlations among tiller number per plant and grain yield and its components. In other conditions these correlations were not significant. We found that the tiller number per plant can not be considered as a direct index for selection of bread wheat lines in warm, dryland conditions of the country.

Agricultural activities have been always faced with production, price and income fluctuations. At the time, attention to management procedures can be very useful in order to reducing these fluctuations. Income insurance with covering risks due to fluctuations in prices and production, able to covered the fluctuations of crop income. The purpose of this study is to design income insurance in order to reducing the income fluctuations of Darab cotton TILLERS. Required information were collected through questionnaire which was conducted in a sample 50 Darab cotton farmers by a multi stage sampling random method. Furthermore, due to forecasting futures values, time series data that collected from various recourse of cotton TILLERS cooperative union and agriculture organization was used. For computing the insurance premiums, a statistic simulation method called bootstrapping was used. The results relative to computed income insurance premiums, analyzed with two hypotheses such as direct and indirect relationships between yield and price. Ultimately, it became clear that applying direct relationship between yield and price due to negative correlations of these two variables can cause reduction of income insurance. Comparing the present value with computed income insurance premiums showed the superiority of income insurance scheme. The value of income insurance premiums for poor and rich farmers with assumptions "0.9 loading coefficient and 65% government subsides", computed 0.81789 and 25.60451 dollars respectively. At the end its presented suggestion to aim the appropriate risks management. The most important suggestion is creation a bilateral solidarity between farmer and insurer, Another one is election of income insurance scheme as final policy for poor group.

The present research was conducted to investigate the effect of water stress and silver nanoparticles on morphological traits of some saffron ecotypes. The experiment was done in the form of split plot factorial in a randomized complete block design format in three replications at the research farm of Birjand University with two levels including full and low water irrigation on 10 ecotypes of saffron and at three levels of silver nanoparticles including control treatment (distilled water), 55 and 110 ppm. Traits such as germination date (germination), the number of germinated corms, the number of TILLERS, the number of leaves, leaf length, the pods length and leaf width were measured. The best date of emergence and the largest number of paws in complete irrigation treatment was observed under distilled water treatment (control). The highest number of corm germinated was observed in irrigated conditions at 55 ppm of silver nanoparticles in the Qaen ecotype. The highest leaf length was observed under drought stress in the treatment with distilled water (control). The largest number of leaves and leaf width were observed under drought stress at 55 ppm of silver nanoparticles. According to the obtained results of this study, some of the traits at the conditions of drought stress under silver nanoparticles with a concentration of 55 ppm and some of the traits in the full irrigation and lack of use of silver nanoparticles had the best performance. Thus, it could be said that probably, in stress dryness, the amount of ethylene increases. Some of the obtained results of this study can be related to the effect of silver in preventing ethylene activity.

An experiment was carried out to assess the effect of four nitrogen levels viz. T1 (full doze of urea i.e. 215 kg urea ha-1 at 15 DAT), T2 (full doze of urea at two equal splits, ½ at 15 DAT + ½ at 30 DAT), T3 (full doze of urea at two equal splits, ½ at 15 DAT + ½ at 55 DAT) and T4 (full doze of urea at three equal splits, 1/3 at 15 DAT + 1/3 at 30 DAT + 1/3 at 55 DAT) on morpho-physiological attributes of Boro rice genotypes viz. V1 (BINAdhan 5), V2 (Tainan 3) and V3 (BINAdhan 6). Plant height, number of TILLERS hill-1, number of leaves hill-1, leaf area hill-1 (cm2), DM (dry matter) of root, stem and leaves hill-1, TDM (total dry matter) hill-1 and chlorophyll content in leaves (at 74 DAT), were increased with the split application of N. Among the treatments, T4 showed the best performance and grain yield (45.25 g hill-1) compared to control (30.61 g hill-1). Among the genotypes, BINAdhan 5 and BINAdhan 6 showed similar performance in respect of most of the parameters but BINA dhan 6 produced the highest grain yield (40.26 g hill-1) compared to BINA dhan 5 (35.54 g hill-1) and Tainan 3 (33.90 g hill-1). Full dose of urea (215 kg urea ha-1) applied at three equal split at 15, 30 and 55 DAT was found to be the most beneficial one for the all the rice genotypes. Leaf chlorophyll content had a strong contribution to grain yield of rice.

In order to study the effects of nitrogen fertilizer rates and plant number on yield and yield components of two rice cultivars, a field experiment was carried out in Babol city- during 2010. A split-split plot experiment on the basis of randomized complete block design with 3 replications and 3 factors including fertilizer rate (0, 57.5 and 115 kg.ha-1), plant number per hill (3, 4 and 5) as sub plot and cultivars (Fajr and shiroudi) as sub sub plot were used. Results showed the rates of nitrogen fertilizer had significant effect on grain yield, harvest index, fertile TILLERS number, panicle number and biological yield. Also, different levels of plant number have not significant effects except of panicle number, grain yield and biological yield. With increasing nitrogen fertilizer application, grain yield was increased significantly compared with control treatment (without nitrogen fertilizer application). Interaction effect between nitrogen fertilizer rate and cultivar was significant at 1% probability levels for grain yield and panicle number in which the highest yield was belong to the nitrogen fertilizer rate of 115 kg.ha-1 and Shiroudi cultivar. Among the mentioned traits, fertile TILLERS number, panicle number and biological yield had the highest correlation with grain yield.

In order to determine tillering, yield and yield component of Promised bread and durum wheat three experiments were conducted in Safi-abad Agricultural Research Center, with three 15/9, 15/10 and 15/11/1998 planting date. The trials were randomized complete block design with four replication as six wheat varieties, Falat, Atrak, Zagroos, Durum 13, Durum 12 and Chin altar in main plot and five seed densities 50, 100, 200, 400 and 800 seed per m2 in sub plot. TILLERS number per plants and wasting, spike number per m2 , seed number with spike and thousands seed weight were reduced with delay in plant date of increase in seed densities. Also with raise in densities TILLERS per plant were decreased, tiller mortality and spike number per m2 were increased. Competition between plants in 800 seeds per m2 were caused such decline in spike less than seeds number per m2. In every planting date seed number per spike and seed thousands weight were decreased so seed number per m2 were raised. There was not any significant differences between seed yield in planting date, but this factor were exceed significantly with add to seed number per m2. As delay in planting date, seed number per m2 must be increased.

Introduction Rice (Oryza sativa L.) is recognized as one of the earliest cultivated crops, providing essential nutrients for human growth and health. One of the major challenges today is the severe limitation of arable land available for rice production. This issue is particularly critical in countries with arid and semi-arid climates and limited water resources, such as Iran, where rice cultivation requires substantial amounts of water. Ecological intensification is an approach that optimally utilizes natural resources to enhance productivity while minimizing negative environmental impacts. The present study aimed to investigate the effects of various cultivation systems on the quantitative and qualitative characteristics of rice (Tarom Hashemi cultivar). Materials and MethodsThis study was conducted through two separate experiments based on a randomized complete block design with four replications, under nursery and field conditions in the city of Babol, Iran, during the 2022 and 2023 growing seasons. The experimental treatments included three cultivation systems: the System of Rice Intensification (SRI), an intermediate system, and a traditional system. In the nursery, seed densities for the ecological intensification, intermediate, and traditional systems were set at 100, 200, and 300 g.m-², respectively. In field conditions, treatments included transplanting ages of seedlings (20, 30, and 40 days), planting densities (25, 30 and 20 plants.m-2), irrigation regimes (water deficit as alternative water, saturated irrigation at the soil level, and permanent waterlogging in 10 cm above the soil), and the number of seedlings (1, 4, and 8 seedlings per hill). The traits under investigation included seedling length, stem diameter, and root diameter at the time of transplanting from the nursery to the field. Evaluated quantitative traits included growth characteristics (panicle length), yield components (percentage of unfertile grains and number of productive TILLERS), biological yield, paddy yield, harvest index, and quality traits (amylose content and gel consistency temperature). Results and DiscussionThe results from the nursery experiment indicated that the main effect of planting systems on stem length, stem diameter, and root diameter of seedlings was significant. Except for root length, the interaction between year and planting systems was not significant for the other traits in the nursery. In the ecological intensification system, stem diameter, stem length, and root diameter measured 24.5 cm, 4.1 mm, and 0.52 cm, respectively. In both years, the longest root length observed was 13 cm in the ecological intensification system. In contrast, the lowest values for these traits were recorded in the traditional system. The examination of quantitative traits of rice in field conditions revealed significant interaction effects between year and planting systems on the number of fertile TILLERS. The highest number of fertile TILLERS was recorded for SRI. The effect of planting systems was significant on both biological yield and paddy yield. The maximum biological yield (2.9 kg/ha) and paddy yield (0.83 kg/ha) were associated with SRI. The highest amylose content and gel consistency temperature were found in the ecological intensification system (with 22.7% and 3.7, respectively), while the traditional system exhibited the lowest values (with 21.5% and 3.0, respectively). Correlation coefficients between paddy yield with panicle length (r = 0.98**), number of fertile TILLERS (r = 0.99**), and biological yield (r = 0.97**) were all positive and statistically significant at the 1% probability level. Conclusion Overall, the results of this study demonstrate that the ecological intensification system outperformed the other management systems and can be considered an effective approach in ecological management. This contributes to sustainable production, food security, and improvements in environmental characteristics.