Worldwide coliform bacteria are used as indicators of fecal contamination and hence, the possible presence of disease causing organisms. Therefore, it is important to understand the potential and limitations of these indicator organisms before realistically implementing guidelines and regulations to safeguard our water resources and public health. This review addresses the limitations of current faecal indicator microorganisms and proposed significant alternative MICROBIAL indicators of water and wastewater quality. The relevant literature brings out four such significant MICROBIAL water POLLUTION indicators and the study of these indicators will reveal the total spectrum of water borne pathogens. As E.coli and enterococci indicates the presence of bacterial pathogens, Coliphages indicate the presence of enteric viruses, and Clostridium perfringens, an obligate anaerobe, indicates presence of parasitic protozoan and enteric viruses. Therefore, monitoring a suite of indicator organisms in reclaimed effluent is more likely to be predictive of the presence of certain pathogens in order to protect public health, as no single indicator is most highly predictive of membership in the presence or absence category for pathogens.

Background: Many nosocomial infections are transferred by hand contact between personnel. Among basic actions to control such infections is the investigation of hygienic conditions of washing hands with hand washing liquids. In such situations, if the hand washing agents are contaminated with pathogenic agents, they may lead to the development of nosocomial infections.Objectives: In this study, we investigated infections in hand washing liquids in public hospital of Sanandaj during 2011. Materials and Methods: This was a cross-sectional study conducted in public hospitals of Sanandaj. The type and species of microorganisms from 52 samples were examined and diagnosed. Statistical analysis was done using Excel with frequency distribution tables and descriptive tests.Results: Pseudomonas aeruginosa (47.36%) and Staphylococcus epidermidis (26.31%) had the highest frequencies and Escherichia coli (5.26%) had the lowest isolation rate.Conclusions: The results indicated that the level of contamination at public hospitals of Sanandaj was very high (59.37%). An important finding of this study was the need for appropriate training because we observed liquid containers without lids or with unsuitable lids.

The effects of heavy metals on soil MICROBIAL processes were investigated over a period of six weeks. Analytical grade (Sigma) sulphate salts of copper, zinc and nickel were added individually and in combinations to soil samples and incubated in different plastic pots. Samples were taken from the pots forthnightly and the rates of MICROBIAL carbon and nitrogen mineralization, MICROBIAL biomass carbon and respiration were measured. The results showed the effect of metals on the measured parameters were significant (P<0.05). By the 6th week postreatment, the rates of carbon accumulated were high in the copper (6.03%) and copper:zinc (5.80 %) treatments but low in the nickel and zinc (4.93% and 5.02% respectively). The rates of nitrogen mineralization were 0.41 and 0.44 % in samples treated with copper and copper: zinc compared to 0.22%-0.24% obtained at the beginning of the experiments. Soil MICROBIAL biomass carbon declined from average value of 183.7–185.6mg/g before treatment to as low as 100.8 and 124.6mg/g in samples treated with copper:zinc and copper respectively. The rate of respiration of the soil MICROBIAL populations was equally inhibited by the metals. From an average rate of 2.51-2.56mg of C/g respiration of the soil microbes declined to 0.98, 1.08 and 1.61mg of C/g in the copper:zinc, copper and zinc treated soils by the end of the experiment. The results suggest additive or synergistic effects of the metals.

Taguchi L9 orthogonal array was implemented to select optimum values of process parameters and to attain the maximum removal of pollutants and power generation from dairy industry wastewater using double chambered salt bridge MICROBIAL fuel cell. The maximum chemical oxygen demand reduction, current, voltage, power, current density and power density in double chambered salt bridge MICROBIAL fuel cell from dairy industry wastewater was found to be 86. 30 %, 16. 10 mA, 886. 34 mV, 14. 27 mW, 1219. 69 mA/m2 and 1081. 06 mW/ m2 respectively for the optimum value of 1M NaCl concentration, 10 % agar concentration and 0. 10 m salt bridge length. Double chambered salt bridge MICROBIAL fuel cell was not only removed chemical oxygen demand and produced power, but it also removed other pollutants at the maximum level against the best optimum value of process parameters from the dairy industry wastewater. The proposed regression model was used to select the right combination of process parameters for obtaining a maximum reduction of pollutants and simultaneous power production from the dairy industry wastewater.