Some scholars have argued that there is a negative correlation between the onset age of L2 acquisition and performance on different measures of L2 competence. A kind of biological scheduling was assumed to be responsible for this maturational constraint on language development. Not all areas of language are affected at the same time in all individuals. The present study asks whether and to what extent critical period effects can be found for universal properties of language considered to be innate. Subjacency, Empty Category Principle (ECP) or That-trace effect, and Structure Dependency are the hypothetically innate constructs that are investigated in this study. The test is divided into two parts: Varying and Invariant violations. We argue that the results of the present study indicate a very adverse powerful effect of the increase of onset age on the ability of the learners to detect UG violations. Moreover, group differences were also important in that group 1 always performed as well as the native speakers; group 2 could not perform as well as the native speakers in most cases; group 3 failed to perform as well as the native speakers and group 1 in any of the issues under investigation. We can conclude that (a) the ultimate level of attainment depends in part on the onset age (b) there are sensitive periods controlling language development during which the acquisition of different linguistic abilities is fruitful and after that language learning becomes irregular and incomplete (c) the age-related loss in competence is cumulative and there is no cut off point. Another conclusion of this study is that since late learners did not perform as well as the native speakers on both violation types we can infer that age of acquisition affects both varying and invariant UG type knowledge. We conclude that the age of onset has a significant effect on ultimate achievement of L2 learners.

There are several ways for word-making, but literati and linguists, have described "combination" and "derivation" as one of the most important processes in the word-making; In this regard, the Persian language is due to the "Indo- European" language family and in this family, the process of word- making is mainly made up with "combination", is classified as "combinatorial languages, " and on the other hand, the Arabic language, have same origin with the "Sami" languages, these languages is introduced and classified in the "derivational languages" because of the importance of "derivation" in the process of word-making. In this article, it has been tried to investigate the two processes of "composition and "derivation" in two languages "Persian and Arabic" with more in-depth analysis and from this perspective, a comparative review of these two languages is investigated…

Focusing on the relationship between calligraphy and Arabic writing, this paper studies the effect of Ottoman calligraphy on Arabic GRAMMAR. It also deals with the rules of Ottoman calligraphy, mentioning some of its forms and modifications. The paper, moreover, studies the relationship between Quranic readings and Ottoman calligraphy as well as between grammatical mistakes and calligraphy and word play.Quranic calligraphy did not differ from common calligraphy during the Prophet's times. Modifications of Arabic calligraphy took place afterwards. Linguists accepted the modifications that Ottoman calligraphy has undergone; however, they have disagreed, both in the past and recently, over Quranic writing using modern rules. Some totally rejected the new writing; some mildly accepted it; some others thought it should be adopted. Ottoman calligraphy was not consistent; some words were in one place in one form and spelled differently in another place. Moreover, Ottoman calligraphy was influenced by different linguistic schools and there are differences between Bousris and Koufis in Quranic calligraphy.Ottoman calligraphy has exclusive advantages, including specification of different readings; supporting the right recitation; preservation of the Quran and shielding against deviation and change, with the result of every generation handing over the same form of the Quran, leading to unanimity of writing and pronunciation. Other advantages include the provision of information about some forms of Standard Arabic and indexing the origin of the letters and sounds in the words.

Arabic language teaching in Iran has long been embedded in our Islamic culture and beliefs. Teaching syntax as one of the key processes of Arabic language teaching-even in Arabic speaking countries-has always been challenging. Teaching methods and efficiency These methods and fundamental changes in teaching methods and modeling of new teaching models of other languages can greatly increase the quality level of GRAMMAR teaching. This paper seeks to explain the shortcomings and advantages of each method by examining and analyzing traditional and modern approaches to teaching syntax. And explore some of the barriers to teaching and learning syntax. Efforts have also been made to provide appropriate solutions to some of these challenges. The results show that by modifying the types of language teaching methods and diversity in the use of teaching methods, careful planning based on the step-by-step method, etc., the quality level of the syntax teaching process can be increased.

The fact that all children all over the world acquire their native language through more or less the same processes during the first few years after birth, may be considered as evidence to assume that they are all programmed to language acquisition by birth. Accordingly, they subconsciously internalize a common knowledge about the language of the environment which they use in speech production and perception as well as in organizing their thoughts and also in some other functions during all their lives. According to Universal GRAMMAR (UG) theory, only by the assumption that some universal principles and features are inherited by the child through birth, the natural process of child language acquisition may be explained adequately. In this article language acquisition as evidence for UG is revisited with some specific reference to the Persian language data.

Maulānā Obeydollāh Abīdī was a poet and scholar of Iranian descent (d.1306 A.H./1888 C.E.) who lived in Bengal during the British Raj, and had acquired a good working knowledge of several languages, including Persian, Urdu, Hindi, Bengali, Arabic and English. He is the author of many works, some in prose and some in verse, most of which remain unpublished. These include his divan, an autobiography and several volumes of textbooks for teaching Persian to students. Abīdī is also the author of a five-volume set of Persian GRAMMAR entitled dastūr-e pārsī āmūz (the GRAMMAR-Book for Teaching Persian). Three volumes of this set were printed and published in India towards the end of the nineteenth century. In this paper, the author who has examined the second volume of the series reports on it. Abīdī may be considered a pioneer GRAMMARian, and so most of his terminology is of his own coinage. The seven parts of speech that Abīdīenumerates are 1) esm (noun), 2) nāyeb-e esm (pronoun), 3) fe'l (verb), 4) vasf-ol-fe'l (modifying adverb) 5) rābef-e kalāmī (preposition), 6) rābet-e jomaī (conjunction) and 7) asvāt (interjections).

In the studies conducted on Persian GRAMMAR the properties, functions and distribution as well as the internal and external grammatical relations of the overt NP have been extensively and sufficiently investigated and described. Yet, the non-overt NP, Pro and pro, and its grammatical properties, relations and distribution have not been examined and described satisfactorily whereas it should be subjected to scrutiny and description because it is grammatically active through its relations, functions, and distribution. In this article four types of the non-overt NP in the Persian GRAMMAR are studied and described.

Among the most controversial issues in language teaching is teaching GRAMMAR. Some educational approaches pay significant attention to linguistic forms and believe that language teaching is equal to teaching GRAMMAR (Nassaji & Fotos, 2011). Nowadays, a more rational approach is taken regarding teaching GRAMMAR. Learning GRAMMAR is argued to be necessary for uttering correct sentences and paying simultaneous attention to form and function is a must in language teaching. Robins (as cited in Safavi, 2011, p. 25) is of the view that “ language should be considered as a system with mutually-related dependent factors. These factors are either lexical, syntactical, or morphological. ” Therefore, syntax can be considered as the organizing element for these factors. Based on prioritizing syntax in language teaching, various methods have been taken into consideration, among which traditional ones, such as GRAMMAR-Translation Method (GTM), put a great emphasis on teaching GRAMMAR deductively. On the other hand, methods, such as Audiolingualism, suggest inductive teaching because they believe verbal communication is as essential as grammatical forms. Meaning-based approaches pay attention to meaning, and in their extreme extensions, such as natural approach, GRAMMAR is completely put aside. Communicative approaches, as the name suggests, highlight the communicative aspects of language, and GRAMMAR, along with other components of language, is utilized to improve communicative competence. By introducing the cognitive approach, whose idea revolves around the fact that the structure of language reflects our thoughts, the role of senses and cognition in teaching linguistic components, including GRAMMAR, became important. By means of such approaches, learners can objectify abstract concepts through their senses and use critical thinking, futures thinking, and creative thinking to learn the language more thoroughly. Here, GRAMMAR is not merely a set of memorized rules, but it is a tool by which learners can think better. The present study, therefore, intends to introduce an educational approach that include various levels of senses, because we are of the view that GRAMMAR should be thought more dynamically to improve the learners’ reflection. This, we believe, can be achieved by a new categorization based on thick-slice and thin-slice sensory teaching, which is beyond theoretical teaching, and includes practical teaching and thinking skills teaching. The presented approach, applicative teaching, whose name is a mixture of application and reflection, teaches students how to think critically, creatively, and futuristically. Based on this approach, GRAMMAR teaching starts with theoretical, form-based aspects and moves to practical, function-based aspects, and tries to fixate the rules by making students think about what has been taught. Results show that by involving senses and cognition, learners’ awareness, creativity, and communicative competence are improved, which can consequently help them learn the grammatical rules better. In this vein, teachers can employ those tasks that boost students’ creative thinking and critical thinking to teach GRAMMAR applicatively.

Alrisalah al-Baghdadiah, alternatively called Hikayat Abu al-Qasim al-Baghdadi, is adored in the Arab world as one of the most important examples of Arabic narrative heritage. As an author with firm footsteps in Arabic literature, the writer narrates the imaginary Abu al-Qasim story and describes him by paradoxical traits. To this end, he adopts the historical narration style enriched by ironical language and comic interjections. This narrative provides a real picture of the life of the Baghdad inhabitants. It depicts the reality of the life of different social groups ad reflects the values of Abbasid-era society as well as the practices and manners of the people living in the fourth century after Hejira. The writer has created an imaginary world as well as a great technique to help correct those values and to express his own ethical mission. To do so, he has used comedy, laughing, and jokes which prevail all parts of the narrative. The author's worldview regarding people's life and thinking style is exemplified in this style of narration. This narrative is recounted in the form of a story along with numerous instances of eloquent poetry and prose. In addition, its interchanges are made by only one main character. Nonetheless, it has two narrators: the main narrator is the author himself and narrates through the character of "Abu al-Mutahhar al- Azdi". Besides, the protagonist of the narrative is used as the secondary narrator. This latter one has been created by the first narrator to express his intended thoughts and opinions. One of the most important artistic techniques of the Risala that has made it outstanding is the duality of place and time: the duality of the open and closed place and the limited and unlimited time. The events of the narrative overlap. However, although at first they are expressed consecutively and orderly, they then become chaotic due to the drunkenness of the narrator, and it becomes a hard task to find a relationship between the narrated stories.

Writing the GRAMMAR of a language is one of the most significant outputs of linguistic studies. In Iran, it is Avicenna (Ibn-e Sina) who is credited with the first such compilation of the Persian language. Under-standing the weaknesses associated with the traditional trends of GRAMMAR writing in Iran, contemporary Iranian linguists adopted the modern Western approach following the Chomskyan Turn thus attempting to work out a GRAMMAR for Persian. Accordingly, this study investigated the scientific theory of GRAMMAR writing in Iran through a descriptive-analytic method, using the transformational-generative theory. In addition to reviewing the stances of Iranian GRAMMARians, the paper specifies and describes GRAMMARs of different kinds through a typological approach so as to attain a new classification of GRAMMAR writing par-adigms in Iran. The findings of this research show that GRAMMAR writing approaches in Iran are divided into three paradigms, namely, traditional, structural, and scientific.