In linguistics, a tree bank is a parsed text corpus that annotates syntactic or semantic sentence structure. The exploitation of tree bank data has been important ever since the first large-scale tree bank, The Penn Treebank, was published. However, although originating in computational linguistics, the value of tree bank is becoming more widely appreciated in linguistics research as a whole. For example, annotated tree bank data has been crucial in syntactic research to test linguistic theories of sentence structure against large quantities of naturally occurring examples. The natural language parser consists of two basic parts, POS tagger and the syntax parser. A Part-Of-Speech Tagger (POS Tagger) is a piece of software that reads text in some languages and assigns parts of speech to each word (and other token), such as noun, verb, adjective, etc., although generally computational applications use more fine-grained POS tags like 'noun-plural'. A natural language parser is a program that works out the grammatical structure of sentences, for instance, which groups of words go together (as "phrases") and which words are the subject or object of a verb. Probabilistic parsers use knowledge of language gained from hand-parsed sentences to try to produce the most likely analysis of new sentences. These statistical parsers still make some mistakes, but commonly work rather well. Inaccurate design of context-free GRAMMARs and using bad structures such as Chomsky normal form can reduce accuracy of probabilistic context-free GRAMMAR parser. Weak independence assumption is one of the problems related to CFG. We have tried to improve this problem with parent and child annotation, which copies the label of a parent node onto the labels of its children, and it can improve the performance of a PCFG. In GRAMMAR, a conjunction (conj) is a part of speech that connects words, phrases, or clauses that are called the conjuncts of the conjunctions. In this study, we examined the conjunction phrases in the Persian tree bank. The results of this study show that adding structural dependencies to GRAMMARs and modifying the basic rules can remove conjunction ambiguity and increase accuracy of probabilistic context-free GRAMMAR parser. When a part-of-speech (PoS) tagger assigns word class labels to tokens, it has to select from a set of possible labels whose size usually ranges from fifty to several hundred labels depending on the language. In this study, we have investigated the effect of fine and coarse grain POS tags and merging non-terminals on Persian PCFG parser.

Contemporary poetry can be divided into the poetry of before and after the Islamic Revolution. Among the post-revolutionary poetry, the Pishro or avant-garde Poetry is the most important style of poetry. The well-known figure of this kind of poetry is Reza Baraheni (1935-) who became the most influential poet of the Post-Revolution Poetry with the publication of his Khetab be Parvane ha and introducing his literary ideas in different articles. Baraheni attempts in his poetic theory, which is known as lingual theory, to reach multilingualism in poetry, multiplicity of forms and language, disintegration of meaning, disintegration of narrative, disintegration of GRAMMAR, formalism, and disintegration of description. In the present study, topics such as morphological innovations and morphological and syntactic deviations in Khetab be Parvane ha are studied. As a result, deviations in these poems are divided into two: the successful linguistic part where Baraheni manages to bring some new words into Persian language without disturbing its morphological structure, and the unsuccessful syntactic part where all the rules governing the sentence have been disturbed.

Introduction: This research analyzes and evaluates modalization based on Halliday's systemic functional GRAMMAR (SFG) in the Azerbaijani Turkish language. In this SFG-based approach, mood and modality are examined within the mood structure which consists of two parts: (i) mood with elements of subject and finite and (ii) residue. In short, modality in this system refers to the space between two polarities, namely 'yes' and 'no'. In modalization, the commodity being exchanged is information and the utterance is considered as a proposition in which the speaker's attitude to the event is in the form of degrees of probability or possibility of occurrence or degrees of usuality,this means the possibility of recurrence. Despite the lack of attention to modality and its integration into the concept of mood in the Turkish GRAMMAR, the concept of modality in this system has been significantly distinguished from the category of mood. This research is an attempt to address the issues about (i) the presentation of modalization, (ii) the role of adjuncts in distinguishing between degrees of certainty and usuality and (iii) the presentation of past and present tense in mood finites in the Turkish language. Methods & Materials: First of all, to investigate modalization in the Azerbaijani Turkish language, the elements and constituents that make up mood structure and modalization in terms of possibility of occurrence, frequency, degrees, levels and elements involved in their formation were examined. In so doing, Azerbaijani Turkish clauses and their English and Persian equivalents were used. The theoretical framework of the current analysis was based on the mood structure in SFG) and the corpus was taken from the clauses in the literary and fictional sources in the Turkish language. The concept of modality has not been mentioned at all in the sources of the Azerbaijani Turkish GRAMMAR, and no study was found in the literature to address this issue based on SFG. Aijmer (2016), Nuyts (2001), Eggins (2004), and Halliday and Matthiessen (2004) have widely examined modality based on SFG. Considering the integration of the concept of mood and modality in Turkish GRAMMAR, the aim of this research was to study the Azerbaijani Turkish language based on an approach that can make a clear distinction between these two categories. Discussion: The findings show that the mood structure in the Turkish language is also made up of two parts: mood and residue. The mood itself is composed of two components: the subject and the finite, and the residue includes the three functional elements of predicator, complement and adjunct. Results also show that predicators are an integral part of the mood structure and determine the presence, absence and number of complements in this constituent, while the presence of adjuncts in this structure is not mandatory and they can be removed from the clause. Concerning modalization, the study of the syntactic behavior of the elements and the morphemes involved in the clauses indicates that Azerbaijani Turkish expresses modality with "high" and "medium" degrees of certainty by means of the finite-mali. Also, unlike the English language that uses different finites, i. e., may and could, Azerbaijani Turkish uses the morpheme-abil which does not represent the semantic differences in its English equivalents. Examining the clauses of modalization in terms of probability and only with the presence of mood adjuncts showed that the ambiguity in Azerbaijani Turkish in terms of making a distinction in the degree of probability of occurrence is removed due to the presence of mood adjuncts. Furthermore, examining the modalization in terms of usuality with the presence of adjuncts of frequency in Azerbaijani Turkish showed that there is no ambiguity in the levels of usuality. A third state related to modalization in terms of probability with high and low degrees of certainty was also found. It was evident that the mood finites and the mood adjuncts were employed simultaneously. Despite the fact that the mood finites are the same in Azerbaijani Turkish, the ambiguity in the distinction between high and medium levels has been removed due to the presence of mood adjuncts,different mood adjuncts have raised the scale of certainty. Finally, the examination of modal verbs showed that in Azerbaijani Turkish-unlike English-the concept of tense does not appear in an integrated form with lexical verbs, but it emerges as a dependent morpheme. These morphemes are-di in the past tense and zero in the present tense. Surprisingly enough, in the current GRAMMAR sources of Azerbaijani Turkish, the morpheme-ir is mistakenly introduced as the morpheme of the present tense. Conclusion: Overall, it is concluded that modalization in terms of probability in the Azerbaijani Turkish language is represented in three levels and states: (i) only with the presence of mood finites, (ii) only with the presence of mood adjuncts, and (iii) with the simultaneous presence of mood finites and mood adjuncts. The only difference is that the distinction between high and medium levels and also the semantic distinction between could and may at the low level is not possible in Azerbaijani Turkish. Modalization in terms of usuality is manifested only with the presence of mood adjuncts, and no ambiguity in different levels is observed. Not only the presence of mood adjuncts in modalization removes the ambiguity in the distinction between levels, but also their presence along with the mood finites can raise the degree of certainty of modalization in terms of probability. The combination of the morphemes of modality and tense generates mood finites in Azerbaijani Turkish. The morpheme-di indicates the past tense and its absence indicates the present tense, i. e., zero morpheme. Although the morpheme-ir is often reported to indicate the present tense in the Azerbaijani Turkish GRAMMAR sources, the SFG-based approach to Azerbaijani Turkish shows the process of the occurrence of verbs.

To date, controversy among scholars exists on whether or not teachers should react to EFL learners' written GRAMMAR errors. This study investigated the effect of three feedback types (i.e., selective, comprehensive, and the one recommended by Truscott (1999), that is, no correction) with regard to possible improvements in accuracy in the writings of a total of 66 elementary EFL learners. It, further, sought whether such an effect would last in the long run. During 11 weeks, selected global (e.g., past tense, countable/uncountable, and comparative adjectives) and all GRAMMAR errors in the written pieces of the subjects in two treatment groups (n=22 in each) were reacted through coded underlining. However, in line with Truscott, the only reaction participants in the third group (n=22) received were comments such as great, good, ok, etc. Analysis of the written pieces in the immediate and delayed post tests revealed that selective feedback had a significantly more positive influence on learners' accurate use of selected grammatical structures both in the short and in the long run. The implications are discussed in terms of effective guidelines for teaching writing in EFL contexts.

The aim of this study is to investigate the argument structure of deverbal nouns in Persian on the basis of Lexical Functional GRAMMAR and to describe how the semantic roles of a verb can be represented in constituent structure of the equivalent deverbal noun. Data analyzes indicate that Mapping Principles in Lexical Functional GRAMMAR can properly determine that in Persian the agent in transitive deverbal noun is realized as oblique and in intransitive deverbal noun as postnominal possessor. Whereas the semantic roles of patient and theme in transitive deverbal noun are realized as possessor. According to Mapping Principles the semantic role of agent in nouns which are derived from passive construction can be realized as oblique in constituent structure.

We have studied, in this research, the methods of constructing the past tense and its quality in the two languages of Azari Turkish and Farsi language in a comparative method. From the structural point of view and the number of verb components and their characteristics and combining methods there appeared absolute difference between them; and in the sense and application of past tense their similarities were much more than the their differences. Since Azarbaijani Turkish GRAMMAR is more systematic than Farsi, the extent and diversity of past tense and its components such as determinants, mid-fixes, and auxiliary and sub-auxiliary verbs are more than those of Farsi Language. A past tense in Azarbaijani Turkish has sometimes numerous structures which are not seen in Farsi Language.

The present study evaluated five current international ELT series regarding inclusion of GRAMMAR and vocabulary consciousness raising activities. Drawing upon Willis and Willis (1996) and Graves and Taffe (2007), a Likert-scale questionnaire was developed and validated which was completed by 90 Iranian EFL teachers and 170 Iranian EFL students, forty of whom (20 teachers and 20 students) also sat an interview. The results of inferential statistics (i.e. Independent Samples t-test and Chi-square analysis) revealed there was no significant difference between the responses of the teachers and students in this respect. That is, the results of the questionnaire combined with content analysis of the interviews and subjective evaluation of the researchers indicated although the ELT series incorporated different kinds of GRAMMAR and vocabulary activities, they did not include some of the major GRAMMAR and vocabulary consciousness raising activities (e.g., making generalizations, cross-referencing, reconstructing, discussing word choices, researching about vocabularies, etc.).

This study intends to analyse some of the grammatical difficulites in poetry from the viewpoint If prosody and rhyme. The question is whether poetry, as subject to such requirements and limitations as metre, rhyme, and music can be grammatically justified, and whether poetry can basically be scientifically relied on. To get the answer, with reference to some authoritative bibliographies, some example have been offered for the superiority of music to GRAMMAR In poetry Also, the necessity of the poeticality of poetry and its effect on the GRAMMAR have been emphasized. Again, this study analyses the necessity of empolying in poetry some long vowels 1stead of the short ones. In continuation it speaks about rhyme inrivalry with the GRAMMAR.

Arabic GRAMMAR for understanding the meaning of the Holy Quran emerged from the various methods and then was promoted step by step until the current advanced level, thanks to the different ways that researchers of Arabic language use for understanding the meaning of these methods. Fazel Saleh Allsameraei is a contemporary GRAMMAR gourmet that uses a different approach for the investigation of this science and attempts to return the meaning as spirit for inanimate body of logical arguments of GRAMMAR experts. This research, with its descriptive - analytical method, studies the books of this author, especially the meaning of syntax, investigation the methods that Fazel Saleh Allsameraei tried to revive the rough and soulless science. The Sameraei’s effort is based on restoring the GRAMMAR to the first two hegira centuries and investigating it along with eloquence sciences, especially semantics and addressing the audiences to primary sources of GRAMMAR noted as the most important of this research’s findings.

This paper is concerned with the study of locative predicates in Persian within the Role and Reference GRAMMAR (RRG) framework and two different analyses presented by Van Valin and LaPolla (1997) and also Boutin (2004). Providing a semantically based classification of mentioned predicates in Persian is one of the objectives of this study. The other objective is testing the efficiency of the two analyses especially Boutin’ s suggestion about locative predicates in Persian. Boutin (2004) argues that there is discrepancy between semantic and syntactic valency of locative predicates within the RRG framework, since, they have a semantic valency of two and a syntactic valency of one in a large number of languages. Hence, these predicates have been treated as exceptions in terms of valency correlation. He believes that if the location (one of the arguments of locative predicates) is treated as a separate predicate, rather than referring expression, then these verbs are intransitive and not exceptions in terms of valency correlation. The findings of the present study reveal that Boutin’ s suggestion (2004) holds true in Persian locative states, achievements, accomplishments and active accomplishments, but not for activities.