Chemical injuries of the cornea are ophthalmic emergencies. These injuries often result in significant ocular morbidity and generally strike young adults in the prime years of life. Classification schemes enable the ophthalmologist to determine the severity of injury and the prognosis for the injured EYE. Immediate management consists of copious irrigation following exposure. Effective management in the intermediate and late phases requires an understanding of the cellular events that occur during each phase. Appropriate medical and surgical care helps ensure the best outcomes for these potentially blinding injuries. With appropriate management, it is possible to restore vision to all but the most severely burned EYEs. While our current understanding of these injuries allows us to save many of these EYEs, more work is needed to improve the prognosis of grade IV injuries. Ongoing animal and human research is investigating the use of novel topical agents to reduce angiogenesis, inhibit inflammation, promote repair, and reduce the risk of corneal melting. Efforts at preventing ocular chemical burns are equally important and deserve emphasis.

Dry EYE syndrome is one of the most common causes that bring patients to EYE clinics. It has different etiologies; however, the clinical manifestation and treatment modalities are nearly the same. Different medical and surgical approaches have been carried out to preserve the vision and relieve discomfort. Management of dry EYE syndrome involves a close partnership between the physician and the patient in which proper application of therapeutic, measures and previous experimentations are all important ingredients.      

Chemical EYE burns are among the most important emergencies and often lead to the acute decrease in visual acuity or apparent damage to the EYE. Alkalines, more powerful in destroying cell membranes , penetrate into the lower layers of the tissues and cause greater damage to the EYEs. The greatest damage occurs at PH>11. However, acids form a complex with the corneal stromal proteins, which delays the penetration of acids into the lower tissues. Alkalines, in general, are more deleterious to the EYEs than acids. Minor burns due to alkalines and acids manifest similar clinical presentations. Perilimbal damage is the most important factor in determining the damage scope and its recovery prognosis. Cornea lacking the epithelium shows little resistance against collagenesis; therefore, any delay in the formation of new epithelium makes the cornea vulnerable to more damage. The first step in every chemical burn is the prompt irrigation of the injuries with ample water, which must take at least 30 minutes. Immediately afterwards, local antibiotics are inevitable. Cycloplegics are essential in all EYE burns except in very rare cases. Corticosteroids are useful in the first week as acute EYE complaints are among the most common causes of referring to GPs. Due to lack of sufficient experience and diagnostic facilities, it is meant, in this paper, to present the practitioners with the essential information needed for the appropriate diagnosis and treatment of patients suffering from chemical EYE burns before referring to the ophthalmologist so that the complaints and after-effects of chemical EYE burns are significantly reduced.

Purpose: Dry EYE syndrome is a multifactorial disorder of the tear film and ocular surface that results in EYE discomfort, visual disturbance, and often ocular surface damage. Studies suggest that the prevalence of clinically diagnosed dry EYE syndrome (DES) is 0.4%. to 0.5%, which is highest among women and the elderly. The burden of DES can be substantial, affecting visual function, daily activities, social and physical functioning, work place productivity and quality of life. This article discusses the normal anatomy and physiology of the lacrimal functional unit and tear film; pathophysiology of DES; DES etiology;classifications and risk factors; and DES diagnosis and management.

Purpose: To quantitate the visual field abnormalities associated with amblyopia.Materials & Methods: In a prospective study, 33 amblyopic patients (17 anisometropic, 10 combined, 6 strabismic) performed automated perimetry in each EYE using the Humphrey C-30-2 SITA Standard program. Primary outcome were abnormalities seen in probability plots, foveaI threshold, mean deviation, average threshold and average threshold in 10, 20 and 30 degree of eccentricity.Results: When the probability plots were examined, 22 visual fields in amblyopic EYE were abnormal; 19 had generalized depression, 3 had paracentral scotoma. Average of foveal threshold, mean deviation, average threshold and average threshold in 10, 20 and 30 degree of eccentricity, were decreased in amblyopic EYE in compare with fellow EYE, and this was statistically significant in all variables.Conclusion: Visual field of amblyopic EYE has a mild & generalized depression, compared to fellow EYE and is not associated with any focal field abnormalities; but Software of SITA program translates this mild & generalized depression into abnormal points in Total deviation plot centered around fixation point that typically not been seen in Pattern deviation plot. This pattern of abnormality in visual field of amblyopia, in the absence of other signs of disease needs not any further investigation.

In this article, we present a review of ocular conditions related to alcohol consumption. A search of the literature published from 1952 to March 2020 was performed. The titles and abstracts were screened and the eligible studies were selected. PubMed, ISI Web of Knowledge database, Scopus, Embase, and the Cochrane Library were searched. We categorized the relationship between alcohol intake and ocular conditions by the type of ocular exposure to alcohol. Accordingly, ocular findings following acute alcohol intoxication, optic neuropathy following methanol toxicity, congenital conditions related to maternal alcohol consumption, and ocular disease related to chronic alcoholism are discussed. The main feature of alcohol intoxication in the EYE is abnormal EYE movement. Acute optic neuropathy secondary to methyl alcohol consumption is a serious ocular disease with permanent vision loss or scotoma. Prenatal exposure to ethanol may end in fetal alcohol spectrum disease, where ocular findings are a constant component. The association between chronic alcohol consumption and increased risks of cataract, age-related macular degeneration, diabetic retinopathy, different types of optic neuropathy, impairment of visual quality, retinal vascular disease, and ocular surface disease has also been reported. Along with detrimental medical and social effects, the role of alcohol consumption in different ocular conditions should be considered, as alcohol-induced visual disturbances may contribute to the heavy burden of alcohol abuse on the healthcare system and overall quality of life.

Nowadays, Phosphodiesterase inhibitors (such as Sildenafil, Tadalafil, Vardenafil, and Avanafil) are used to treat erectile dysfunction in men and pulmonary arterial hypertension. There have been numerous reported ocular side effects of these drugs including anterior ischemic neuropathy, central serous chorioretinopathy, retinal hemorrhage, retinal vein occlusion, and retinal artery occlusion. Also, after taking phosphodiesterase inhibitors, various subjective vision complaints, such as Cyanopsia, blurred vision, diplopia, and photopsia are expressed by patients. We extensively searched phosphodiesterase inhibitors ocular side effects in the literature, using PubMed and Medline. In this review article, we classified the ocular side effects of these drugs and the controversies in the reports, the mechanism of action, paraclinical findings, as well as animal studies in this field.