Background: This study aimed to determine DRUG RESISTANCE mutations in patients with virological failure and find correlation between HIV DRUG RESISTANCE test and viral load. Methods: Blood sample was collected from 51 patients who suspicious treatment failure in the center of Imam Kho-meini Hospital, Tehran, Iran in 2015. Viral voluntary counseling and testing load test was done and the patients with viral load above 1000 copies choose for detection of DRUG RESISTANCE mutations by genotyping method (29 patients). Results: The majority of patients (82. 75) harbored the HIV subtype CRF 35 A-D. The 86. 2% patients compromised at least one RESISTANCE mutation. The analysis of reverse transcriptase showed M184V (68. 9%), T215YISF (44. 8%), K103N (27. 6%) and the analysis results of protease revealed G73SC (13. 8%) and I47VA (6. 9%). Eventually, the signif-icant correlation between viral load and DRUG RESISTANCE was found. Conclusion: The result of our research stress the significance of recognizing DRUG resistant on time that prohibits the accumulation of DRUG RESISTANCE mutation and circulates the RESISTANCE strain of HIV-1 virus and the importance of national study according to the reliable findings for treatment guidelines.

Myco tuberculosis is an important death agent in human communities. It is believed that one third of world population is infected with this organism and 8 millions cases are added to this portion every year. It is also estimated that 3 millions die due to TB infection each year. Although TB was supposed to be eradicated by the end of twentieth century, the emergence of DRUG RESISTANCE and prevalence of AIDS made the task more difficult than before. DRUG RESISTANCE is formed by different mechanisms such as mutation in bacterial genome. RESISTANCE to Isoniazide by mutation in katG, inhA and glf genes, RESISTANCE to Rifampin by mutation in rpoB gene, RESISTANCE to Streptomycin by mutation in rpsi, rrb genes and RESISTANCE to Quinolons by mutation in gyrA qene are formed.

Background: Chronic sinusitis (CS) is a disease that affects a significant percentage of the population and causes considerable long term morbidity. This study evaluates different microorganisms causing CS and their microbial RESISTANCE to antibiotics.Methods: Eighty-eight patients with CS requiring a sinus endoscopic surgical procedure were evaluated. At the time of sinus endoscopy, samples were obtained and cultured for aerobes, anaerobes and fungus infections. Demographic data, disease symptoms and signs, culture results and antibiograms were recorded in checklists.Findings: A total of 88 patients (55.3% males and 44.7% females) with a mean age of 38±16 years and 88 cultures were studied. Coagulase-negative staphylococci were the most common pathogen (29.5%), followed by staphylococcus aureus (19.2%), klebsiella (14.1%), E-coli (12.8%), enterobacter (6.4%), and streptococcus hemolytic group A and non-A, Citrobacter, Pseudomonas and muconnycosis. The most common antibiotic RESISTANCE was to ampicillin and penicillin-G and the most common antibiotic sensitivity was to ciprofloxacin and cephalosporins.Conclusion: This study demonstrates that aerobic pathogens rather than anaerobic bacteria or fungi are more common pathogens in CS. Presence of a chronic disease, geographical and socioeconomic factors, as well as a wide variety of invasive organisms are involved in the etiology of sinusitis. Inappropriate use of antibiotics - particularly penicillins - has caused the present DRUG RESISTANCE in sinusitis.

Fusarium head blight (FHB) caused by Fusarium graminearum is a serious disease of wheat (Triticum aestivum L.), through which grain quality losses are induced by fungal trichotecene mycotoxins such as deoxynivalenol (DON). A class of plasma membrane localized ABC transporter proteins related to the yeast PDR5 (pleiotropic DRUG RESISTANCE5) efflux pump seems to be responsible for partial RESISTANCE against trichothecenes in wheat. In order to develop and map a PDR5-specific marker linked to Fusarium head blight RESISTANCE in wheat, F3 and F5 generations obtained from a cross between ‘Wangshuibai’ and ‘Seri82’ were used. The analysis of nucleotide sequences of OSPDR5 revealed a high homology to the wheat EST BT009500. Among ten primer pairs developed from this PDR5-like EST, one was polymorphic between the parental lines. This PCR-based marker associated with FHB RESISTANCE in a ‘Wangshuibai’ derived mapping population. In this study, Composite Interval Mapping (CIM) analysis detected a QTL in the map interval of Xm12p17_2-Xpdr5 (consisting of the developed PDR5-like gene locus) on chromosome 6BS. This QTL accounted for up to 18% of AUDPC variation. Real-time quantitative analysis showed that wheat PDR5-like gene expression was up-regulated during the post-inoculation period of 96 hours in the spike. Our results are in agreement with the hypothesis that the PDR5-like gene may be considered as a FHB RESISTANCE gene candidate in wheat.

Background and aims: Klebsiella oxytoca is an opportunistic pathogen which damages intestinal epithelium through producing cytotoxin. Cytotoxin is one of the important pathogenic factors, which plays a role in the virulence of this bacterium. The aim of this study was to investigate the prevalence and determination of antibiotic susceptibility pattern of Klebsiella oxytoca strains isolated from inpatient and outpatient patients. Methods: In this analytical-descriptive study, a total of 75 isolates of K. oxytoca were isolated from various clinical samples (urine, stool, blood, wound and respiratory secretions), and after performing standard microbiological tests and using PCR method they were verified as K. oxytoca. Susceptibility testing of isolates was performed by disc diffusion method according to criteria recommended by the Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute (CLSI). Data were analyzed using SPSS software and statistical tests. Results: Of all the 75 isolates, 7 K. oxytoca strains isolated from the stool cultures, eleven strains isolated from the blood cultures, two strains isolated from the wound cultures, and 51 strains isolated from the urine cultures and four K. oxytoca strains isolated from the respiratory secretions. Antibiotic susceptibility test results showed the highest and lowest RESISTANCE was related to ticarcillin (81. 3%), meropenem and imipenem (1. 3%), respectively. A multi-DRUG resistant strain was isolated from the urine of a hospitalized woman. Conclusion: In total, the results of this study showed that the isolation and identification of K. oxytoca strains is important and determination of the antibiotic susceptibility pattern of these isolates is necessary in order to prevent the increase of antibiotic RESISTANCE and the emergence of multi DRUG RESISTANCE strains of K. oxytoca.

Background and Objective: RESISTANCE to antiretroviral agents is a significant concern in clinical management of HIV-infected individuals. RESISTANCE is the result of mutations that develops in the viral protein targeted by antiretroviral agents.Material and Methods: In this cross-sectional study, the blood samples of 40 HIV-positive patients were collected. Twenty of them were DRUG-naive and the rest were under treatment for at least one year by antiretroviral agents. Virus genome was extracted from patient's plasma with high-pure-viral-nucleic-acid kit. Then, by means of reverse-transcriptase and specific primers of protease genes were amplified and sequenced. Sequences of genes, DRUG- antiretroviral- resistant mutations and subtypes were determined using Stanford University’s HIV-DRUG-RESISTANCE databases.Results: DRUG-naive patients show 15% RESISTANCE to nucleoside-reverse-transcriptase inhibitor (NRTI) and 20% RESISTANCE to non-nucleoside-reverse-transcriptase inhibitor (NNRTI). Anti-protease RESISTANCE is not observed in any patients. In under treatment patients, DRUG RESISTANCE to NNRTI (25%) is more than DRUG RESISTANCE to NRTI (20%) and the rate of DRUG RESISTANCE to protease inhibitor is 5%.Conclusion: Our findings show a high prevalence of DRUG-resistant mutations in Iranian-DRUG-naive-HIV-infected patients. But in under treatment individuals, the rate of DRUG RESISTANCE is less than previous studies.

Antibiotic therapy is among the most important treatments against infectious diseases and has tremendously improved effects on public health. Nowadays, development in using this treatment has led us to the emergence and enhancement of DRUG-resistant pathogens which can result in some problems including treatment failure, increased mortality as well as treatment costs, reduced infection control efficiency, and spread of resistant pathogens from hospital to community. Therefore, many researches have tried to find new alternative approaches to control and prevent this problem. This study, has been revealed some possible and effective approaches such as using farming practice, natural antibiotics, nano-antibiotics, lactic acid bacteria, bacteriocin, cyclopeptid, bacteriophage, synthetic biology and predatory bacteria as alternatives for traditional antibiotics to prevent or reduce the emergence of DRUG resistant bacteria.