A host of nutrients are needed by CATTLE to support functions associated with life, and to grow, reproduce, and nourish their offspring (i.e., produce milk). A vast amount of resources have been expended to quantify the amounts of specific nutrients needed to perform these function so that economically efficient diets can be formulated. Feeding diets that provide adequate, but not excessive, amounts of nutrients helps improve profitability of DAIRY operations while reducing the environmental impact of DAIRY farms. The trace minerals zinc, copper, manganese, and selenium are components of a wide variety of enzymes and proteins that support metabolism, growth, production, and reproduction. Trace mineral supplements are added to DAIRY CATTLE rations to prevent mineral deficiencies, and supplementation has traditionally been provided in the form of inorganic salts.

The aim of this study was to compare crown-rump length (CRL), trunk diameter and number of heartbeats of embryos and fetuses in heifers and pluriparous cows and also to compare the growth pattern of these structures and their correlation with fetal age. Six nulliparous heifers and seven pluriparous cows (third to seventh of gestation) of the Holstein breed were selected and impregnated. Ultrasonographic measurements were performed twice weekly during days 26-80 of their pregnancies. By day 80, there was no significant difference in CRL and trunk diameter of embryos and fetuses of heifers and pluriparous cows. All of the measurements had a highly significant correlation with fetal age (P<0.0001) except for pluriparous cows in which the fetal heartbeat was significant at p<0.05. The correlation coefficients (CC) of the CRL, trunk diameter and number of heartbeats in the fetuses of heifers and cows were as follows: 0.97, 0.98, -0.74 and 0.97, 0.98, -0.23, respectively. The growth pattern of the CRL and trunk diameter was quadratic in heifers and cows. Also the heartbeat in the fetuses of heifers decreased progressively in a quadratic pattern from day 31 through day 80. However, heartbeat in the fetuses of cows changed in an approximately stable or intermittent range. Moreover, standard error of heartbeats in the fetuses of cows was high. It was concluded that all of the measurements in heifers and cows are suitable for estimation of fetal age, except for heartbeat in the fetuses of pluriparous cows. This measurement is not practically recommended, due to a low CC and high standard error. In addition, there was no significant difference between the CRL and trunk diameter in heifers and cows until day 80 and this difference probably will become more pronounced in late pregnancy

Free radicals are normally produced by living organism, at controlled production rate they perform physio-logical functions as signal transduction molecules. However, situations leading to an overproduction that surpasses antioxidant capacity creates oxidative stress. Consequently, damage to the cell membrane, pro-tein, DNA and cell death are observed. DAIRY CATTLE are susceptible to oxidative stress. Situations such as infections, metabolic disorders and heat stress are known to cause oxidative stress in CATTLE by depleting body antioxidants concentrations or by increasing endogenous free radical production. The organism re-sponse to oxidative stress by activating cell factors that after evaluating the damage to cell, a repair or death signal will be programmed. The objective of this review is to empower the reader with knowledge related to oxidative stress and to provide information on the situations leading to this type of stress and the cellular response to it in DAIRY CATTLE.

Anaphylactic reactions often occur in fann animals following injection of drugs or biological products (vaccines and sera). Although the allergen may enter the body via the other routes (respiratory or gastrointestinal tract), acute systemic reactions are less common. The incidence of hypersensitivity reactions is higher in certain families and herds of CATTLE. Since anaphylaxis is an acute life-threatening reaction, immediate recognition and treatment is critical to patient survival. In this article anaphylactic reaction following vaccination against black leg and pasturellosis has been reported in a DAIRY herd. Clinical and necropsy signs and treatment have been discussed in details.