The present essay deals with investigation of CIRCUMSTANCES of Imam Ali’s rulership and their influence upon actualization of Imam’s plans. Changes in insight and method of Muslims, disturbed social CIRCUMSTANCES caused by general rebel rebellion against the third caliph and his killing, weakening of institution of caliphate after two successive killings of two caliphs, disputes caused by vengeance for Uthman’s bloodshed, radical enmity among tribes of Quraish, disobedience of major cities and districts, and lack of adequate obedient companions and officials are among most significant factors which made CIRCUMSTANCES of Imam’s rulership and of proceeding his plans difficult and associated them with failure.

The International Court of Justice has scrutinized both aggravating and mitigating CIRCUMSTANCES from its ever lightest sentence against Mr. Almahdi in 2016 to its heaviest sentence against Mr. Ntaganda in 2019 and other sentencing decisions. This paper is aimed to analyze principles governing on mitigating CIRCUMSTANCES in ICC Judgments recommendable to Iranian domestic law. In order to scrutinize the evidence and reasoning of the parties regarding the aggravating or mitigating CIRCUMSTANCES, the trial chamber may on its own motion or at the request of the Prosecutor or the accused hold a further hearing to hear any evidence or submissions relevant to the sentence. Then it accepts or rejects the submissions of the parties one by one by its detailed reasoning. This procedure is advisable for our domestic law. In this Descriptive-Analytical research analyzing and comparing various sentencing judgments it is found that to establish mitigating CIRCUMSTANCES, the court takes into account all personal CIRCUMSTANCES and behaviors of the convicted person from early steps of committing crimes, after commission, surrender to the court, during detention, trial and imprisonment. Because of the gravity of international crimes even if various mitigating CIRCUMSTANCES established, the minimum imprisonment will not be less than two years.

According to traditional theories of the nature of propositions, propositions are primary vehicles of representations. An act-type theory of the nature of propositions holds that traditional theories cannot satisfactorily account for the representational character of propositions. We should therefore set aside the traditional theories. According to an act-type theory, when an agent predicates a property of an object, she represents the object as something that possesses that property. That is, the agent is the primary vehicle of the property of representation in virtue of the act of predication that she does. On this theory, propositions are types of tokens of the act of predication, inheriting the property of representation from those tokens. In this article, I introduce two main versions of the act-type theory: Soames’s and Hanks’s. I will then overview the main weaknesses and strengths of these two versions. Considering the flaws of both versions, I conclude that neither can qualify as a successful act-type theory. Moreover, given the strengths and weaknesses of the two versions, I show the conditions that an act-type theory must fulfil in order to qualify as successful.

The basis of intentional crimes is the will. A person who does not dominate his or her behavior should not be punished legally. Intention to occurrence element CIRCUMSTANCES of the crime, which is usually included in the legal definition of crimes and is a part of the actus reus, is not an exception to this rule. When the accused shall be punished that he is aware of the CIRCUMSTANCES and how the legislator intends to commit a crime or he considers his behavior to be that. These element CIRCUMSTANCES are sometimes confused with the conditions known as the "aggravating CIRCUMSTANCES". There are no specific procedures in the criminal law and doctrine regarding the provision of a criterion for distinguishing between these two types of conditions, and the necessity of intention of the aggravating CIRCUMSTANCES. While aggravating CIRCUMSTANCES, and the necessity of intention can have a significant impact on criminal liability. In this article, in addition to offering the criteria for distinguishing between these two types of conditions, according to Article 155 of the Islamic Penal Code, and the judicial procedure in the United States United, based on the general principles of criminal law, the necessity for intention will be strengthened for increasing criminal liability.

Although, some lawyers have opinion that the theory  emerges from the maxim of " Re bus sic stanti bus", which means everything will be as was the conclusion of the Contract, but must accept that this theory is existed by economic crisis of the last century.On the basis of the theory, if in a long term Contract, in the effect of Change of circumstance, which were unforeseeable for parties, the Coasts of the contract becomes so expensive that lose the balance of the Contract, for allocating of heavy unfair responsibility on one of the parties, this theory comes into.The theory is bring into legal systems of many  Courtiers and some conventions as Vienna, UNCITRAL, UNIDOIT, I.C.C and  principals of European Contracts.Iran’s law system has not any legislation about applying this theory and courts object to invoke to it on basis of stability of contract and Islamic law; in sprite of; some lawyers have been tried to find an equivalent for it; but expressly this system don’t try to create a principle for contract which is effected in change of CIRCUMSTANCES. In this article; the author tries to introduce the scope of the theory in Iran and Islamic law and in the end some proposals are demonstrated.

Context is a general, comprehensive, exclusive, and basic concept in the structure of speech and its interpretation. CIRCUMSTANCES or occasions (maqāmāt) are viewed as one of the important factors in their development. This article aims at studying the way CIRCUMSTANCES and occasions outside speech influence the development of context and speech by means of analyzing the applications made by the scholars, especially the interpreters. The results arrived at indicates that as the occasions within the speech are basically effective in achieving the speakers' purposes, so also the occasions outside the speech, i.e., the CIRCUMSTANCES of time, space, addressee, and events, play a major role in the quality of context development. These discourses are known in tafsīr as Meccan and Medinese āyahs and sūras, occasions of Revelation, and address (khitāb).